From Amyloid to Synaptic Dysfunction: Biomarker-Driven Insights into Alzheimer’s Disease

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder and represents a major public health challenge. With increasing life expectancy, the incidence of AD has also increased, highlighting the need for early diagnosis and improved monitoring. Traditionally, diagnosis has relied on clinical symptoms and neuroimaging; however, the introduction of biomarkers has revolutionized disease assessment. Traditional biomarkers, including the Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio, phosphorylated tau (p-Tau181, p-Tau217, and p-Tau231), total tau (t-tau), and neurofilament light chain (NfL), are fundamental for staging AD progression. Updated guidelines introduced the ATX(N) model, which extends biomarker classification to include additional promising biomarkers, such as SNAP-25, YKL-40, GAP-43, VILIP-1, progranulin (PGRN), TREM2, IGF-1, hFABP, MCP-1, TDP-43, and BDNF. Recent advancements have allowed for the detection of these biomarkers not only in CSF but also in plasma and neuron-derived exosomes, offering less invasive and more accessible diagnostic options. This review explores established and emerging biomarkers and emphasizes their roles in early diagnosis, patient stratification, and precision medicine.