Tissue engineering for tendon and ligament repair: Insights and advances

Abstract

Diseases and injuries affecting tendons (Ts) and ligaments (Ls) are among themost frequently diagnosed musculoskeletal disorders. Although many of theseare not life threatening, they can cause severe debilitation, ultimately leading tosubstantial reductions in the patients’ mobility and quality of life. Even thoughthe relevant advances in surgical and rehabilitative approaches to treat T/Ls dis-eases, the incidence of complications associated with those approaches is stilltoo high, making T/Ls diseases an unmet clinical need. Currently, there is noconsensus on an effective therapeutic strategy able to promote a complete T/Lshealing process. Over the past decade, there has been a growing interest in devel-oping tissue-engineered T constructs as viable graft alternatives. In this review,we aim to delve into the latest advancements in the field of tissue engineeringfor T repair. The most advanced technologies such as electrospinning, 3D print-ing, melt electrowriting, and hybrid fabrication techniques have been discussed,adopting critical connections with biological and biomolecular aspects. Further-more, this review provides comprehensive insights into current strategies, andfuture directions, of T/Ls regeneration using tissue engineering approaches, thuspaving the way to the development of new effective approaches to T/Ls diseases.